Table 1 Role of cytokines and chemokines in tumor growth and replication
| Â | Mechanism of action |
|---|---|
Cytokines | Â |
 TNF-α [71] | Activation of nuclear factor-kappa-β (NF-kB)-signaling pathways Stimulates production of cytokines (ex. IL-6) and growth factors Induces expression of adhesion molecules |
 IL-1 [72] | Activation of NF-kB-signaling pathways Activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) pathway Recruitment of immune cells to TME Stimulates production of angiogenic factors |
Activation of JAK-STAT3-signaling pathway Activation of PI3K/AKT-signaling pathway Recruitment of immune cells to TME Promotes epithelial–mesenchymal transition Stimulates production of angiogenic factors | |
Activates c-MET-related-signaling pathways (ex. Wnt/β-catenin signal transduction) Activation of PI3K/AKT-signaling pathway Activation of MAPK/ERK 1/2 pathway Activation of NF-kB-signaling pathways | |
 IFN-α [77] | Activation of JAK-STAT3-signaling pathway Stimulates the production of IL-6 Upregulates expression of Bcl-2 and survivin Stimulates production of angiogenic factors |
Chemokines | Â |
 CCL-1 [78] | Activation of PI3K/AKT-signaling pathway Activation of ERK1/2-signaling pathways |
Participates in CCL20–CCR6 axis enhancing migration and proliferation | |
Upregulates expression of MMP2 and MMP9 through CCL25–CCR9 axis |