Table 2 Comparison of experimental models in secondary prevention research for macrovascular complications of type 2 diabetes

Rodent Models (Mice and Rats)

Atherosclerosis, hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, dyslipidemia, gut microbiome, hematopoietic cells

High reliability, physiological relevance, cost-effective study designs, advanced genetic manipulation

Physiological differences from humans, experimental complexity

[13, 27, 68]

Cellular Models (Human Aortic Smooth Muscle Cells, Bone Marrow-Derived Macrophages, Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells, Human Aortic Endothelial Cells)

Vascular smooth muscle cells, macrophages, endothelial cells

Direct approach, cost efficiency

In vitro environment limitations

[79, 213,214,215]

Organoid Models

Metabolic disease symptoms, drug screening, evaluation

Flexibility, human specificity

Cost, technical complexity

[216, 218, 219]

3D Culture Matrices and Microfluidic Chambers (e.g., R-VECs)

Endothelial cell research, vascular network reconstruction

Human environment mimicry, vascular generation, repair utility

Cost, technical complexity

[220]