Table 1 Anti-biofilm strategies

(A) Inhibition of biofilm initiation

1

Alteration of physical properties of biomaterials [86,87,88]

Alteration of hydrophobicity, surface charge

Hyaluronic acid, Hydrogel membranes, fluorinated silica/titanium coatings

2

Alteration of chemical properties of biomaterials [89,90,91]

Altering the exterior of biomaterial

Ion coatings, biocides, antibiotics

(B) Inhibition of biofilm establishment/Biofilm dispersals

1

Quorum quenchers [93, 95]

Disruption of the biofilm mode of existence

Meta-bromo-thiolactone, FS3, Daptomycin

2

Anti-Quorum sensing peptides [96]

Attenuate quorum sensing

RNA III-inhibiting peptide

(C) Biofilm eradicators

1

Destroy extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) [97]

Disruption of protective EPS to expose bacteria to antibacterial agents

Deoxyribonuclease I (DNase I), Dispersin B, Alginate lyase

2

Nanoparticles [98]

Creating artificial channels in EPS

Laser-induced nanobubbles, Magnetic nanoparticles

3

Antimicrobial peptides [99, 100]

Disruption of the cell membrane, inhibition of enzymatic activity

LL-37, Oritavancin

4

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) [101,102,103]

Disruption of the bacterial membrane–cell lysis

Mono-/bis-/tris-QACs, XF-70, XF-73

5

Antimicrobial lipids [104, 105]

Cell lysis, disruption of electron transport chain, inhibition of bacterial enzymes

Glycerol monolaurate, Docosahexaenoic acid, Eicosapentaenoic acid

6

Bacteriophage [106,107,108]

Anti-biofilm mediators

PhilBB-PF 7A

7

Natural [109,110,111,112]

Variable

1. Plant extracts: Green tea, Dandasa, fresh garlic extract (FGE)

2. Honey: Sidr, Manuka

3. Essential oils: Cumin, Cinnamon oil

8

Novel/modified antibiotics [113,114,115]

Broad-spectrum antibiotics

Vancomycin-D-octaarginine (V-r8), Pentobra

9

Others [116, 117]

Adjuncts to enhance the sensitivity of conventional antibiotics

1. Electrochemical treatment: damage bacterial membrane

2. Cryogenic freezing