Fig. 3
Multiple pathways and interactions leading to nano-mineral forming in renal tubular and cortical tissues. Chronic dehydration-induced high mineral concentration within the renal fluid and tissues is conducive to forming mineral crystals. Multiple factors aggravate renal ischemia, anaemia, and inflammatory cell infiltration. These leads to chronic inflammation and oxidative stress. Collectively, these lead to disruption of tubular cell functions and fibrosis, causing CKD–CTN [TDS: total dissolved solids; Ca2+ and PO43-, Mg2+, etc.); CaPO4: calcium phosphate; CaOx: calcium oxalate; Mg2+: magnesium; F−: fluoride] (modified from Wimalawansa and Dissanayake) [10]