Table 1 Primary causes of tubulo-interstitial nephritis (TIN)
Causes | Examples |
|---|---|
Infections | Bacterial pyelonephritis; Hantavirus; Leptospirosis; Tuberculosis |
Drug-induced | Analgesics; lithium; Cyclosporine: certain Chinese herbs; Chemotheraputic agents; Toxins; Heavy metal (e.g., Lead, Cadmium) |
Immune-mediated | Sjogren’s syndrome; Anti-tubular basement membrane disease |
Metabolic disorders | Gout; Hypercalaemic interstitial nephritis; Hypokalemic interstitial nephritis |
Lifestyle issues | Chronic dehydration, daily alcohol intake |
Hereditary disorders | Wilson’s disease; Hyperoxaluria; Cystinosis |
Hematologic disorders | Amyloidosis; Sickle cell disease; Light chain nephropathy; Cast nephropathy |
Miscellaneous | Crystalline tubular-nephropathies: Mesoamerican nephropathy; Balkan nephropathy—CKDu/CKDmfo |