Table 2 Biomarkers of endothelial injury

Occludin

Occludin is a major component of the tight junction of epithelial and/or endothelial barriers

Occludin level is increased in numerous pathologic conditions, including HIV, cancer, neuroinflammation and sepsis

Syndecan-1

Syndecan-1 is released in endothelial glycocalyx damage

Syndecan-1 levels in circulation are associated with severity of sepsis, acute kidney injury, need for intubation, and mortality

Endocan

Endocan is a soluble dermatan sulfate proteoglycan in endothelial cells

Endocan can regulate major processes, such as cell adhesion, in inflammatory disorders and tumor progression

claudin-5

Claudin-5 can modulate the permeability of tight junctions

Levels of claudin-5 in serum is to correlate with severe plasma leakage

cadherin-5

Cadherin-5 is a main component of adherens junction

Loss of vascular endothelial cadherin results in increased permeability

ZO-1

ZO-1 is a component of tight junction proteins

ZO-1 is associated with inflammation and cancer

TF

Exposure of TF attract interaction with the FVII and FX that activate both coagulation cascades

TF can activate both coagulation cascades and increase vascular permeability

PAI-1

As the main negative regulator of plasminogen activation, PAI-1 is an essential factor in regulation of the physiological balance between thrombosis and fibrinolysis

High PAI-1 levels are associated with many cardiovascular diseases

Antithrombin

Antithrombin is the active anticoagulant operative during heparin therapy to inhibit thrombin, factor 10a, and, less efficiently, factors 9a and 11a

Heparin-like molecules are synthesized by endothelial cells and interact with AT on the vessel wall to inhibit coagulation

Thrombomodulin

Thrombomodulin is an endothelial transmembrane glycoprotein that possess a central modulatory role in the natural anticoagulant system

Thrombomodulin can blocks thrombin to inactivate the pro-coagulant signaling and the downstream pro-inflammatory responses

Angiopoietin-1/2

Angiopoietin-1 and 2 (Ang1, Ang2) are important mediators of angiogenesis

Perturbation of Angiopoietin-1/2 leads to various pathological conditions, such as inflammation, tumor and restenosis

sICAM-1

sICAM-1 can mediate leukocyte migration and adhesion to target structures by binding to the leukocyte adhesion receptor

sICAM-1 is upregulated in endothelial dysfunction and promotes an inflammatory response

sVCAM-1

sVCAM-1 plays an important role in the adhesion and migration of leukocytes from blood to vascular intima

sVCAM-1 are considered to be markers of endothelial cell activity or injury

sFlt-1

sFlt-1 is a soluble antagonist of VEGF with an essential effect of maintaining the balance of vascular growth

sFlt-1 is associated with markers of inflammation, endothelial function, and myocardial stress or injury

sE-Selectin

E-selectin is a recognized marker of endothelial activation

sE-selectin expression by endothelial cells is crucial for leukocyte recruitment during the inflammatory response